Friday, September 26, 2008

Obama and McCain on political crisis

Obama, McCain seek political dividend in Wall Street crisis




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Wall Street's meltdown sent shock waves through the White House race, as Barack Obama and John McCain sought a decisive political dividend from the fast-moving crisis just 50 days from the election.

Both candidates rushed out quick statements after the failure of investment blue-chip Lehman Brothers unleashed global securities turmoil and the state of the economy drowned out last week's squabbles in the political gutter.

In a rally in Jacksonville, Florida, Republican hopeful McCain said he knew people were scared but insisted the economy remained on sound foundations -- drawing a swift rebuke from Democrat Obama's campaign.

"There has been tremendous turmoil in our financial markets and Wall Street. People are frightened by these events," McCain said.

"Our economy I think, still, the fundamentals of our economy are strong, but these are very, very difficult times," McCain said at a rally in the key battleground state of Florida.

"I promise you, we will never put America in this position again. We will clean up Wall Street," McCain vowed, drawing loud cheers from his supporters.

Underscoring the political stakes as the financial crisis opened up a new political battleground in the twisting race, the Obama campaign pounced.

"Today of all days, John McCain's stubborn insistence that the 'fundamentals of the economy are strong' shows that he is disturbingly out of touch with what's going in the lives of ordinary Americans," said spokesman Bill Burton.

"Even as his own ads try to convince him that the economy is in crisis, apparently his 26 years in Washington have left him incapable of understanding that the policies he supports have created an historic economic crisis."

Obama issued his first written statement on the crisis at 6:17 am, east coast time, and McCain followed just over an hour and half later. But McCain was first up with a political advertisement on the meltdown.

The Democrat blamed President George W. Bush and the Republicans.

"The challenges facing our financial system today are more evidence that too many folks in Washington and on Wall Street weren't minding the store.

"Eight years of policies that have shredded consumer protections, loosened oversight and regulation, and encouraged outsized bonuses to CEOs while ignoring middle-class Americans have brought us to the most serious financial crisis since the Great Depression," he said.

McCain's statement promised a reform drive in Wall Street would be the "highest priority" of his administration.

The narrator of his advertisement warned : "our economy in crisis. Only proven reformers John McCain and Sarah Palin can fix it."

Palin, McCain's vice presidential nominee, weighed in during a trip to Colorado, as US stocks followed the downward march of global shares and television news stations here fixated on the crisis.

"Washington has been asleep at the switch and ineffective and management on Wall Street has not run these institutions responsibly," Palin said, at a rally in Golden, Colorado.

"John McCain and I are going to put an end to the mismanagement and abuses in Washington and on Wall Street that have resulted in this financial crisis.

Obama's running mate Senator Joseph Biden, on the stump in economically struggling Michigan, returned fire in a speech lacerating McCain.

"A record number of home foreclosures, home values, tumbling," said Biden.

"And the disturbing news that the crisis you've been facing on Main Street is now hitting Wall Street, taking down Lehman Brothers and threatening other financial institutions."

Though the economy has been the number one campaign issue for months, neither Obama nor McCain has carved out a wide advantage with voters spooked by the mortgage crunch, rising food costs and high gasoline prices.

An ABC News/Washington Post poll earlier this month found 47 percent of voters trusted Obama to run the economy and 42 percent trusted McCain. The Democrat had enjoyed a much wider lead on the issue for much of this year.

The latest financial crisis was sparked when banking giant Lehman Brothers went bankrupt on Monday sparking a global stocks fall, central bank alarm and widespread fears for the financial system.

US President George W. Bush said he was working "to minimize" the impact of "painful" events in global markets.

McCain: Obama exploiting economic crisis

Sen. John McCain told an Iowa crowd today that Barack Obama is trying to gain a political advantage from the financial crisis on Wall Street.

"My opponent sees an economic crisis as a political opportunity instead of an opportunity to lead," McCain said.

The remark echoes campaign honcho Steve Schmidt, who told reporters today that Obama was "cheerleading" the crisis. (Hat tip to Time's Mark Halperin for the pool report.)

Said Schmidt: "This is a real crisis, leaders should be responding to the crisis putting the country first, putting the American people first, not looking to score political points out of it."

This is the kind of complaining that often comes when the other side does a better job of exploiting news than your side did.

No response yet from Obama, who is about to speak in New Mexico. (Update: Obama doesn't answer the cheerleading charge, but in an economic policy speech, says of McCain: "You can’t just run away from your long-held views or your life-long record. You can’t erase twenty-six years of support for the very policies and people who helped bring on this disaster with one week of rants.
And better still, he has been meeting with numerous financial heavyweights on both sides of the isle and will deliver his program on Friday. The same old thinking and the same old people who created this mess have to go. It's not a matter of giving the boot to one or two people. The problems in our financial system are much broader than that and go layers deep. Of course, we could say the same about all of the Bush-McCain people who have been running the country. Their half-baked theories are bringing us all down.
Obama also mocked McCain's promise to fire the head of the Securities and Exchange Commission if elected.

"I think that's all fine and good but here's what I think," Obama said. "In the next 47 days you can fire the whole trickle-down, on-your-own, look-the-other way crowd in Washington who has led us down this disastrous path.

"Don't just get rid of one guy. Get rid of this administration," he said. "Get rid of this philosophy. Get rid of the do-nothing approach to our economic problem and put somebody in there who's going to fight for you."

Obama came up with yet another way to poke fun at McCain for his comment Monday that the fundamentals of the economy were strong. "This comment was so out of touch that even George Bush's White House couldn't agree with it when they were asked about it. They had to distance themselves from John McCain."

Barack Obama said this afternoon that John McCain proved he doesn't understand economics with what the presumptive Republican nominee's campaign had billed as a major speech Tuesday on the housing crisis.

Obama said despite the growing wave of foreclosures that is putting families out of their homes, depressing house values, and forcing consumers to put off purchases, McCain "offered not one policy, not one idea, not one bit of relief."

McCain focused instead on warning against a leap to government intervention that would reward speculators and the irresponsible and hurt taxpayers in general.

But Obama said action is needed. "Our economy is grinding to a halt," Obama told voters in Greensboro, N.C., returning to the campaign trail after a family holiday in the US Virgin Islands.

The Democratic front-runner said that McCain would be more of the same as President Bush, whose call for an "ownership society" turned into a "you're-on-your own society."

"We can't afford another four years of Bush economics," Obama said.

UPDATE: McCain spokesman Tucker Bounds issued a response.

"Senator Obama’s blatant mischaracterizations aren't the new politics he’s promised America, they're the old attack and smear tactics that Americans are tired of," Bounds said in a statement. "Barack Obama's diagnosis for our housing market is clearly that Barack Obama knows best -- raise taxes on hardworking Americans and give government a prescription to spend."

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Computer networking and Devices

Computer networking

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A computer network is a group of interconnected computers. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics. This article provides a general overview of some types and categories and presents the basic components of a network.

Computer Network

Computer networks have been a boon for businesses because they connect different makes and models of microcomputers, minicomputers or even mainframe computers, allowing for shared communication, files and equipment. The first networks appeared in the 1960s when multi-user networks were introduced. In multi-user systems, dumb terminals, which do not have processing capabilities of their own, are connected to a central host computer, which shares processing time with these dumb terminals. Now much more popular are Local Area Networks, or LANS, which appeared in the early 1970s. A LAN is a communication network privately owned by the organization using it. LANs utilize stand-alone microcomputers rather than dumb terminals and can vary greatly in size, range and complexity. The actual distance and number of computers that can be connected is highly dependent upon the type of LAN and communication line used. Telephone lines are sometimes used and are most convenient; however, coaxial cable connections permit faster, higher quality transmissions. Fiber optics, tiny tubes of glass half the diameter of a human hair, has become the preferred technology of the 1990s, allowing faster and less expensive data transmissions than wire cabling. All networks are different in size and complexity. However, they all share one of three similar shapes. These shapes are known as network topologies. There are three basic topologies to which most networks conform: Bus, Ring, and Star. The Bus topology uses a single communication line to connect equipment, allowing contact between all stations, or nodes. Failure of a single micro-computer may interfere with the rest of the network.

Network Classification

The following list presents major categories used for classifying networks.

Scale

Based on their scale, networks can be classified as Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), etc.

Connection method

Computer networks can also be classified according to the hardware technology that is used to connect the individual devices in the network such as Optical fiber, Ethernet, Wireless LAN, HomePNA, or Power line communication.

Ethernet uses physical wiring to connect devices. Often deployed devices are hubs, switches, bridges, and/or routers.

Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use radio waves as transmission medium.

Functional relationship (Network Architectures)

Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist among the elements of the network, e.g., Active Networking, Client-server and Peer-to-peer (workgroup) architecture.

Network topology

Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the network is based, such as Bus network, Star network, Ring network, Mesh network, Star-bus network, Tree or Hierarchical topology network, etc.

Network Topology signifies the way in which devices in the network see their logical relations to one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is, network topology is independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a Bus Topology. In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct; the logical network topology is not necessarily the same as the physical layout.

Types of networks

Below is a list of the most common types of computer networks in order of scale.

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Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs or scanners. The reach of a PAN is typically within about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9 meters).

Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as USB[1] and FireWire. A wireless personal area network (WPAN) can also be made possible with network technologies such as IrDA and Bluetooth.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or building. Current LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology. For example, a library may have a wired or wireless LAN for users to interconnect local devices (e.g., printers and servers) and to connect to the internet. On a wired LAN, PCs in the library are typically connected by category 5 (Cat5) cable, running the IEEE 802.3 protocol through a system of interconnection devices and eventually connect to the internet. The cables to the servers are typically on Cat 5e enhanced cable, which will support IEEE 802.3 at 1 Gbit/s. A wireless LAN may exist using a different IEEE protocol, 802.11b, 802.11g or possibly 802.11n. The staff computers (bright green in the figure) can get to the color printer, checkout records, and the academic network and the Internet. All user computers can get to the Internet and the card catalog. Each workgroup can get to its local printer. Note that the printers are not accessible from outside their workgroup.


Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources

All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are handling multiple subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches" because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them access routers, where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic networks' customer access routers.

The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (wide area networks), include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly 40 Gbit/s.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

A network that connects two or more LANs but that is limited to a specific and contiguous geographical area such as a college campus, industrial complex, office building, or a military base. A CAN may be considered a type of MAN (metropolitan area network), but is generally limited to an area that is smaller than a typical MAN. This term is most often used to discuss the implementation of networks for a contiguous area. This should not be confused with a Controller Area Network. A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network is a network that connects two or more Local Area Networks or Campus Area Networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate town/city. Routers, switches and hubs are connected to create a Metropolitan Area Network.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area (i.e. one city to another and one country to another country) and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Global Area Network (GAN)

Global area networks (GAN) specifications are in development by several groups, and there is no common definition. In general, however, a GAN is a model for supporting mobile communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is "handing off" the user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial Wireless local area networks (WLAN).[2]

Internetwork

Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork.

In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who participates in them:

  • Intranet
  • Extranet
  • Internet

Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.

Intranet

An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users with organizational information.

Extranet

An extranet is a network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities (e.g. a company's customers may be given access to some part of its intranet creating in this way an extranet, while at the same time the customers may not be considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint). Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although, by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.

Internet

The Internet is a specific internetwork. It consists of a worldwide interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and private networks based upon the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web (WWW). The 'Internet' is most commonly spelled with a capital 'I' as a proper noun, for historical reasons and to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.

Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing system (IP Addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundent world-wide mesh of transmission paths.

Basic Hardware Components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.11) or optical cable ("optical fiber").

Network Interface Cards

A network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly.

Repeaters

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable runs longer than 100 meters away from the computer .

Hubs

A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all the ports of the hub for transmission. When the packets are copied, the destination address in the frame does not change to a broadcast address. It does this in a rudimentary way, it simply copies the data to all of the Nodes connected to the hub.[3]

Bridges

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learns which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was received.

Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.

Bridges come in three basic types:

  1. Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)
  2. Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced by routers.
  3. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

Switches

A switch is a device that performs switching. Specifically, it forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunk of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the Mac-Addresses in the packets.[4] This is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the datagrams to the ports involved in the communications rather than all ports connected. Strictly speaking, a switch is not capable of routing traffic based on IP address (layer 3) which is necessary for communicating between network segments or within a large or complex LAN. Some switches are capable of routing based on IP addresses but are still called switches as a marketing term. A switch normally has numerous ports with the intention that most or all of the network be connected directly to a switch, or another switch that is in turn connected to a switch.[5]

Switches is a marketing term that encompasses routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier). Switches may operate at one or more OSI layers, including physical, data link, network, or transport (i.e., end-to-end). A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is called a multilayer switch.

Overemphasizing the ill-defined term "switch" often leads to confusion when first trying to understand networking. Many experienced network designers and operators recommend starting with the logic of devices dealing with only one protocol level, not all of which are covered by OSI. Multilayer device selection is an advanced topic that may lead to selecting particular implementations, but multilayer switching is simply not a real-world design concept.

Routers

Routers are networking devices that forward data packets between networks using headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. Routers work at the network layer of the TCP/IP model or layer 3 of the OSI model. Routers also provide interconnectivity between like and unlike media (RFC 1812). This is accomplished by examining the Header of a data packet, and making a decision on the next hop to which it should be sent (RFC 1812) They use preconfigured static routes, status of their hardware interfaces, and routing protocols to select the best route between any two subnets. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Some DSL and cable modems, for home (and even office) use, have been integrated with routers to allow multiple home/office computers to access the Internet through the same connection. Many of these new devices also consist of wireless access points (waps) or wireless routers to allow for IEEE 802.11b/g wireless enabled devices to connect to the network without the need for a cabled connection.

Computer networking

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Network cards such as this one can transmit and receive data at high rates over various types of network cables. This card is a 'Combo' card which supports three cabling standards.

Computer networking is the engineering discipline concerned with communication between computer systems or devices. Networking, routers, routing protocols, and networking over the public Internet have their specifications defined in documents called RFCs.[1] Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of telecommunications, computer science, information technology and/or computer engineering. Computer networks rely heavily upon the theoretical and practical application of these scientific and engineering disciplines.

A computer network is any set of computers or devices connected to each other with the ability to exchange data.[2] Examples of different networks are:

All networks are interconnected to allow communication with a variety of different kinds of media, including twisted-pair copper wire cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber, and various wireless technologies.[3] The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Bluetooth) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet[4]).

Views of networks

Users and network administrators often have different views of their networks. Often, users share printers and some servers form a workgroup, which usually means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same LAN. A community of interest has less of a connotation of being in a local area, and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly also communicate via peer-to-peer technologies.

Network administrators see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers, bridges and application layer gateways that interconnect the physical media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP/IP architecture, subnets , map onto one or more physical media. For example, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using virtual LAN (VLAN) technology.

Both users and administrators will be aware, to varying extents, of the trust and scope characteristics of a network. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a community of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users (e.g. employees).[5] Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited connection. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).[5]

Informally, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises,and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering standpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, which share the registered IP address space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol. Typically, the human-readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name System (DNS).

Over the Internet, there can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and consumer-to-consumer (C2C) communications. Especially when money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be secured by some form of communications security mechanism. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any access by general Internet users, using secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology.

When used for gaming one computer will have to be the server while the others play through it.

History

Before the advent of computer networks that were based upon some type of telecommunications system, communication between calculation machines and early computers was performed by human users by carrying instructions between them. Many of the social behavior seen in today's Internet was demonstrably present in nineteenth-century telegraph networks, and arguably in even earlier networks using visual signals. [6]

In September 1940 George Stibitz used a teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set from his Model K at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypes to computers was an interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) when, in 1962, J.C.R. Licklider was hired and developed a working group he called the "Intergalactic Network", a precursor to the ARPANet.

In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of large computer systems. The same year, at MIT, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer (DEC's PDP-8) to route and manage telephone connections.

Throughout the 1960s Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently conceptualized and developed network systems which used datagrams or packets that could be used in a packet switched network between computer systems.

1965 Thomas Merrill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network(WAN).

The first widely used PSTN switch that used true computer control was the Western Electric 1ESS switch, introduced in 1965.

In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the ARPANet network using 50 kbit/s circuits. Commercial services using X.25, an alternative architecture to the TCP/IP suite, were deployed in 1972.

Computer networks, and the technologies needed to connect and communicate through and between them, continue to drive computer hardware, software, and peripherals industries. This expansion is mirrored by growth in the numbers and types of users of networks from the researcher to the home user.

Today, computer networks are the core of modern communication. For example, all modern aspects of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) are computer-controlled, and telephony increasingly runs over the Internet Protocol, although not necessarily the public Internet. The scope of communication has increased significantly in the past decade and this boom in communications would not have been possible without the progressively advancing computer network.

Networking methods

Networking is a complex part of computing that makes up most of the IT Industry. Without networks, almost all communication in the world would cease to happen. It is because of networking that telephones, televisions, the internet, etc. work.

One way to categorize computer networks is by their geographic scope, although many real-world networks interconnect Local Area Networks (LAN) via Wide Area Networks (WAN)and wireless networks[WWAN]. These three (broad) types are:

Local area network (LAN)

A local area network is a network that spans a relatively small space and provides services to a small number of people. The first LAN was invented by a Law Doctor in 1978. Depending on the number of people that use a Local Area Network, a peer-to-peer or client-server method of networking may be used. A peer-to-peer network is where each client shares their resources with other workstations in the network. Examples of peer-to-peer networks are: Small office networks where resource use is minimal and a home network. A client-server network is where every client is connected to the server and each other. Client-server networks use servers in different capacities. These can be classified into two types: Single-service servers, where the server performs one task such as file server, print server, etc.; while other servers can not only perform in the capacity of file servers and print servers, but they also conduct calculations and use these to provide information to clients (Web/Intranet Server). Computers are linked via Ethernet Cable, can be joined either directly (one computer to another), or via a network hub that allows multiple connections.

Historically, LANs have featured much higher speeds than WANs. This is not necessarily the case when the WAN technology appears as Metro Ethernet, implemented over optical transmission systems.

Wide area network (WAN)

A wide area network is a network where a wide variety of resources are deployed across a large domestic area or internationally. An example of this is a multinational business that uses a WAN to interconnect their offices in different countries. The largest and best example of a WAN is the Internet, which is a network comprised of many smaller networks. The Internet is considered the largest network in the world.[7]. The PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) also is an extremely large network that is converging to use Internet technologies, although not necessarily through the public Internet.

A Wide Area Network involves communication through the use of a wide range of different technologies. These technologies include Point-to-Point WANs such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) and High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC), Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and Sonet (Synchronous Optical Network). The difference between the WAN technologies is based on the switching capabilities they perform and the speed at which sending and receiving bits of information (data) occur.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan network is a network that is too large for even the largest of LAN's but is not on the scale of a WAN. It also integrates two or more LAN networks over a specific geographical area ( usually a city ) so as to increase the network and the flow of communications. The LAN's in question would usually be connected via "backbone" lines.


For more information on WANs, see Frame Relay, ATM and Sonet.

Wireless networks (WLAN, WWAN)

A wireless network is basically the same as a LAN or a WAN but there are no wires between hosts and servers. The data is transferred over sets of radio transceivers. These types of networks are beneficial when it is too costly or inconvenient to run the necessary cables. For more information, see Wireless LAN and Wireless wide area network. The media access protocols for LANs come from the IEEE.

The most common IEEE 802.11 WLANs cover, depending on antennas, ranges from hundreds of meters to a few kilometers. For larger areas, either communications satellites of various types, cellular radio, or wireless local loop (IEEE 802.16) all have advantages and disadvantages. Depending on the type of mobility needed, the relevant standards may come from the IETF or the ITU.

How to lose weight in weeks.

How to lose weight the healthy way

Despite what you may think, losing weight isn't a mysterious process. In fact, weight loss doesn't even have to involve strange diets, special exercises or even the 'magic' of pills or fitness gadgets. Want the secret to weight loss? Make small changes each and every day and you'll slowly (but surely) lose those extra pounds.

Rules of Weight Loss

To lose one pound, you must burn approximately 3500 calories over and above what you already burn doing daily activities. Whew...that sounds impossible doesn't it? Here's how it works.

1. Calculate your BMR (basal metabolic rate). Your BMR is what your body needs to maintain normal functions like breathing, digestion, etc.
2. Calculate your activity level. Use a calorie calculator to figure out how many calories you burn while sitting, standing, exercising, lifting weights, etc. throughout the day.
3. Keep track of how many calories you eat. Use a food journal to add up what you eat and drink during the day. If you're eating less calories than you're burning, you'll lose weight.

Example:
Mary's BMR is 1400 calories and she burns 900 calories in daily activity. To maintain her weight, she should be eating 2300 calories but, after keeping a food journal, Mary finds that she's eating 2550 calories every day. By eating 250 more calories than her body needs, Mary will gain one pound every 2 weeks.

This example shows how easy it is to gain weight without even knowing it. But it's also easy to lose weight. In fact, you can start losing weight right now by making a few simple changes. If you can burn an extra 500 calories each day, you'll lose a pound a week and you won't even have to change your clothes. Try these ideas:
Instead of.... Do this...
Having an afternoon Coke Drink a glass of water. (calories saved: 97)
Eating an Egg McMuffin Eat a small whole wheat bagel +1 tbls of peanut butter (calories saved: 185)
Using your break to catch up on work or eat a snack Walk up and down a flight of stairs for 10 minutes (calories burned: 100)
Hitting the snooze button Get up 10 minutes early and go for a brisk walk (calories burned: 100)
Watching television after work Do 10 minutes of yoga (calories burned: 50)

Total Calories Saved: 532 (based on a 140-lb person)

Focusing on daily changes is the best way to reach your goals. No, you won't lose weight overnight but isn't it better to permanently change your life for the better? Say it with me: My Health Is More Important Than My Appearance. Repeat that 10 times a day and you're on your way to better health.

healthiest way to lose weight is neither crash diets nor bursts of exercise. The body likes slow changes in terms of food and exercise.

For example, someone who has not exercised for years should not rush into running miles a day or pounding the treadmill. Not only will the struggle to do so leave you feeling disheartened and demotivated, you're also far more likely to injure yourself and set your fitness levels back further.

The same goes for people who suddenly start starving themselves. Diets that severely restrict calories or the types of food 'allowed' can lead you to be deficient in the nutrients and vitamins that your body needs.

So if you need to lose weight, what should you do?

Energy needs and weight loss

Your body uses food for energy. It stores any excess energy as fat. This means if you eat more food than your body needs for daily activities and cell maintenance, you will gain weight.

To lose weight, you need to get your body to use up these stores of fat. The most effective way to do this is to:

* reduce the amount of calories you eat

* increase your levels of activity.

This is why experts talk about weight loss in terms of diet and exercise.

Introduce changes gradually

Small changes can make a big difference. One extra biscuit a week can lead you to gain 5lb a year – cut that biscuit out of your diet and you'll lose the same amount.

You are also more likely to stick to, say, swapping full-fat milk for semi-skimmed or making time for breakfast each morning than a diet that sets rules for all foods.

You should think of weight loss in terms of permanently changing your eating habits. While weight-loss goals are usually set in term of weeks, the end game is to sustain these changes over months and years.

Increase your activity levels

Someone who increases the amount they exercise, but maintains the same diet and calorie intake, will almost certainly lose weight.

No matter if you hate gyms - even light exercise such as a short 20 minute walk will be beneficial if done most days of the week.

Every single time you exercise more than usual, you burn calories and fat.

There are lots of ways to increase the amount of activity you do. Team sports, racket sports, aerobics classes, running, walking, swimming and cycling will all improve your fitness levels.

Find something you enjoy that's easy for you to do in terms of location and cost. You are then more likely to build it into your routine and continue to exercise, despite inevitably missing the odd session through holidays, family commitments, etc.

* Get out and about at the weekend. Leave your car on the drive and walk to the shops. Try to incorporate longer walks into outings to the park, coast or countryside and take a picnic so you are in control of what you are going to eat that day.

* Every extra step you take helps. Always use the stairs instead of the lift, or get off the bus a stop before the usual one and walk the rest of the way.

* Use commercial breaks between TV-programmes to stand up and do exercise, or consider using an exercise bicycle in the living room while watching your favourite programme.

Reduce your calorie intake


What is overweight?
Doctors use BMI to assess weight.
A BMI of 18.5-25 is healthy.
If you have a BMI of more than 25 you are overweight.
Over 30 is obese.
Over 40 is morbidly obese.
To calculate your BMI, you'll need to know your weight in kilos and your height in metres, then follow the example below.
1. Multiply your height by itself, eg 1.7x1.7= 2.89.
2. Divide your weight (eg 80kg) by this figure.
3. 80 ÷ 2.89= 27.7.
27.7 is the BMI.
If you are overweight, you can't continue with your current eating habits.

It's not possible to reduce body fat while eating lots of food, cakes and sweets. This doesn't mean you can never have any treats, but you need to learn how to limit these foods to small quantities - say, for special occasions.

In terms of weight-loss, you can get your body to use up existing stores of fat by eating less and making healthier choices.

This doesn't mean crash diet (anything less than 1500 calories), which usually ends up with you either getting weaker or giving up in desperation. Quick-fix diets can lead to a yo-yoing effect of drastic weight loss followed by weight gain, resulting in a vicious cycle.

There are no shortcuts to losing weight in a healthy and reasonable way.

Eating 300 to 500 calories less per day should lead to a loss of between one and two pounds per week. This is a realistic target. It may seem slow, but would add up to a weight loss of more than three stone in a year.

Fat contains the most amount of calories out of all the food types (protein, carbohydrates), so a good way to achieve this is to cut down on fatty foods and eat more wholegrain bread, fruit and vegetables.

Below are ways to reduce calorie intake without having to alter your diet significantly.

* Replace fizzy drinks and fruit cordials with water.

* Swap whole milk for semi-skimmed, or semi-skimmed for skimmed.

* Eat less lunch than usual. For example, make your own sandwich and limit the use of margarine/butter and full-fat mayonnaise (store-bought sandwiches often contain both).

* Stop taking sugar in tea and coffee.

* Have smaller portions of the food you enjoy.

* Avoid having a second helping at dinner.

* Cut out unhealthy treats such as confectionary, sugary biscuits and crisps between meals.

* Cut down on beer and alcohol.

All these things will influence your health in a positive way.

Finally, don't be tempted to skip breakfast – or any meal to lose weight. While skipping a meal will reduce your calorie intake for that hour, it will leave you much hungrier later on.

Not only are you likely to overeat to compensate, but you'll often make bad choices to fill the gap: a cereal bar is not as healthy as a bowl of cereal or as filling, leading you to 'need' something extra for lunch.

Irregular eating habits also disrupt your body's metabolism, which makes it harder to lose weight in the first place.

Write down your plan


Food diary
If you're not sure what's wrong with your diet, try keeping a daily diary of everything you eat and drink.
You can use a notebook or an online diary.
At the end of the week, review your entries for problem areas.
Look out for processed foods, alcohol, fast food, roasts, creamy sauces and fried foods.
If your diet seems largely healthy, look at portion sizes.
If you're not sure what's meant by 'healthy diet', read our series on nutrition.
Once you've decided on what changes you're going to make, write them down. For example:

Week 1

o Exercise: one 20 minute walk every lunch hour.

o Alcohol: none in the week, two small glasses of wine on Friday, Saturday, Sunday.

o Food: no chocolate or biscuits in the week, choose healthy snacks such as fruit, trim all fat from meat, eat no fried or fast food.


Once you start your plan, weigh yourself once a week before breakfast. Keep a record of this weight and see if a pattern develops.

You could use a table like the one below to keep track of your goals, marking your progress for each day with a tick or a cross.

Week:
Current weight: Alcohol Exercise Food plan
Goals for week









. .
Progress Alcohol Exercise Food plan Mood Comments
Monday

. . . . .
Tuesday

. . . . .
Wednesday

. . . . .
Thursday

. . . . .
Friday

. . . . .
Saturday

. . . . .
Sunday

. . . . .


Be patient and persevere

It might take a week or two before you notice any changes, but they will steadily appear. After the first month you will be able to see the results and measure them in terms of looser fitting clothes.

Keeping your motivation up is one of the most difficult aspects of dieting. There will be days when healthy eating goes out the window and there will be weeks where you may not lose any weight – or put a little back on.

This is normal for everyone – dieters or not – so don't let it undo your plans for a slimmer you. You're not doing anything 'wrong', but you may need to look at your plan. Do you need to increase your activity levels? Make a few more changes to your diet? Put more effort into sticking to your current plan?

The other side of this is to make sure you celebrate your goals. While there is joy enough in stepping on the scales and seeing them dip lower, be sure to mark long-term progress with a reward such as new clothes or a night off from housework.

Celebrating is also a way to involve your nearest and dearest – it's up to you whether you want their encouragement in the form of gentle reminders not to eat certain foods, but support from other people can get you through the bumpy patches.

Health benefits of weight loss

Studies show that overweight women who lose between 10lb and 20lb halve their risk of developing diabetes. For men, the risk of heart problems reduces considerably.

Generally, we gain weight as we age. A few pounds over the years are not a problem, but people who gain more than 20lb compared to their weight as an 18-year-old will rapidly increase their risk of health problems due to that extra weight. In particular, women increase their risk of heart attack and double their risk of dying from cancer.

It may seem like these are problems to worry about in the future, but time flies by and tomorrow becomes today. By keeping your weight in the healthy range, you are less likely to be troubled by illnesses in your later years.

How to Lose Weight Fast
Obesity is the second leading cause of preventable death in the U.S.
Obesity is the second leading cause of preventable death in the U.S. [1]

Want to slim down fast for that beach vacation or high school reunion? While there are many things you can do to shed pounds, losing weight too quickly, like any sudden change to your body, can be dangerous. While fad diets, diet pills, and fasting may indeed induce rapid weight loss, these methods can cause you to lose muscle and may also injure your heart and other organs fairly quickly. The best solution? Don't go for an overnight miracle. Instead, follow these steps to lose fat rapidly, healthily, and sustainably.
Steps

1. Determine your daily calorie intake . Losing weight is simply a matter of expending more calories than you take in, through exercise and your daily activities. To win the battle, it helps to know how many calories you are consuming in a day.
* Write down all the things you eat on a typical day. Carry a small notebook with you and write down every snack, every drink, and the contents of every meal. There are also great websites that you can use to keep track of calories, get recipes, and help achieve your goal. Don't forget to include the pats of butter or the spoonful of sugar in your coffee. It's best to do this for at least a couple weekdays and a weekend; it's even better if you can go a full week. There are also calorie tracking websites that can help you to do this, for example the US government website, My Pyramid Tracker.
* Do an itemized calorie count. When possible, write down the number of calories in each thing you eat as you eat it. Keep in mind that the recommended serving size is often considerably smaller than the serving you actually eat. Look up the calorie count on the internet for foods that don't have calories listed on the container or for fast food meals. You don't have to be 100% accurate, but you do want a good estimate of the number of calories you're taking in. There is an idea that multiplying your own weight by ten will produce a rough estimate of the number of calories you need to eat per day to maintain your weight. This is NOT true, you may wind up grossly under (or perhaps over) estimating the number of calories you should be eating. Use a scientific or health website to determine the number of calories you should eat a day or consult your doctor. Everyone has different metabolisms and there is no blanket rule that covers everyone's recommended calorie intake. Reducing 500 calories per day from the calories you eat to maintain your weight can help you lose a pound of fat per week.[2]
2. Go over the list and decide which foods to cut out or reduce. Cutting calories is usually a lot easier than you might think. For example, that daily tall latte in the morning may pack 500 calories. Since a pound of flab (lost or gained) is roughly equivalent to 3,500 calories, replacing that rich beverage with black coffee can help you lose a pound a week. Other easy cuts include salad dressing (salad dressing is the number one source of fat in the average American woman's diet) soda pop, candy, and butter. Look at the nutritional information for the foods you eat, pay special attention to your intake of saturated fats and empty calories (high-sugar foods). You don't need to cut these things out entirely, but if you reduce your intake of high-fat, high-calorie foods you'll lose weight faster.
3. Seek out alternatives to the unhealthy foods you've identified. You can simply reduce the amount of soda you drink or mayonnaise you put on your sandwiches, or you can substitute healthier choices. Drink water instead of soda, for example, or use mustard instead of mayo. Low-fat and low-calorie options are also available for most foods, and many of these are natural, (although some are made with strange chemicals), and tasty. Start trying to eat healthy in most meals:

* Choose lean meats. Chicken and fish are both very low in fat (and certain fish like salmon, sardines, and fresh tuna are an excellent source of antioxidants, which are also beneficial to your health), so aim to replace some or all of the beef or pork in your diet with these foods.
* Replace high-calorie side dishes with healthier alternatives. Many people get a ton of calories from side dishes such as macaroni and cheese, French fries, or potato salad. You can eat healthier and lose weight by replacing these with fresh vegetables and salads. Pre-made salads are practically effortless, and when accompanied by a reduced-calorie dressing or no dressing at all, they're weight-loss gold.
* Start your days off right. A fattening breakfast of bacon and eggs or a pastry can be replaced with yogurt, oatmeal, high-fiber, low-sugar cereals; or fresh fruit for fruit smoothies. However, for those on a low carb diet bacon and eggs are a great combo for breakfast, since neither have carbs. But don't fall into the trap of skipping breakfast. Eating a healthy breakfast increases your rest metabolic rate earlier in the day, and reduces snacking before lunch.
4. Plan your meals. Look for healthy, delicious meals online or in your cookbooks, and create a menu for the week. Make sure that your meal plan reduces your total calorie intake: you're not going to lose weight if you consume the same amount of calories by eating different foods. Make a list of what you'll need for these meals, and -- except for a few snacks, of course -- don't stray from your list when you get to the market. Planning your meals helps ensure you get a balanced diet and reduces the temptation to stop off for fast food or order a pizza. Remember, it's easier to stick to your shopping list if you shop when you aren't hungry.
5. Watch your portion sizes. Opening a bag of rice cakes and eating all of them in one sitting isn't going to help you lose weight. When eating chips, nuts, or dried fruit put a portion in a small bowl and then put the bag away. That way you won't mindlessly eat a larger portion than you had intended. Even if you only make minimal changes to your diet choices, reducing portion size will inevitably reduce caloric intake. A great way to watch portion sizes while snacking is to buy one serving 100 calorie packages - and they come in many favorite snack food items![3]
6. Graze on healthy snacks. Just because you're getting healthy doesn't mean you can't snack. In fact, eating small meals and snacks throughout the day, or grazing, has been shown to aid weight loss, (compared to eating three large meals a day), by keeping metabolism steadier. Pick snacks that are low in calories and fat and high in fiber (dried apricots, nuts, rice cakes, fruits, baby carrots, cherry tomatoes, and so on). Vegetables are generally very low in calories, very high in fiber, and full of flavor and nutrition. Avoid starchy vegetables like potatoes, and try to eat vegetables plain, without fatty dressings or dips. Fruit also makes a good snack. Fruit contains more soluble fiber than vegetables, which slows your body's absorption of carbohydrates, thus releasing energy more slowly, (preventing sugar highs), and keeping you feeling full longer. Fruit juices are not a replacement for the real thing. You need that fiber, and juices often have more calories than the equivalent serving of fruit -- as many calories as soda! Be careful with dried fruits, because without the water, you tend to eat more, and fruits, when dried, are calorie-rich per ounce. With any dry or dried food, be sure to drink plenty of water.
7. Get more fiber. There are many myths about fiber, but there is science to back up its helpful role in the diet. Fiber keeps the right amount of water in your intestines, making your digestive system work more efficiently and helping to keep you regular. Thus, just eating enough fiber may help you feel slimmer in just a day or so. There is also evidence that fiber in the diet can help prevent stroke and heart disease, ease the effects of diabetes, and may even directly help in weight loss.
8. Drink plenty of water. Adequate water is essential for health, and a great many people simply don't get enough. What's more, if you're chronically dehydrated, your body will retain water in unflattering places, so if you make sure to get plenty of fluids you can start visibly trimming down in as little as a day. Remember, the more you exercise, the more water you'll need. See the related wikiHow for more details on how much water you should be getting.
9. Exercise. Remember, you can lose weight either by decreasing your calorie intake or increasing the number of calories you burn. Any health strategy should include both, but if you want to lose weight fast, exercise is essential.
10. Perform high-level aerobic activities. Moderate aerobic workouts incorporating jogging, brisk walking, cycling, aerobic machines, or classes not only burn calories -- they also keep your heart healthy. Swimming is also great, especially if you are quite overweight or have joint problems, because you can get the same benefits of running -- typically burning even more calories -- with much less stress on your joints. Try to get at least 30-40 minutes of aerobic exercise at least three or four days per week.
11. Pump some iron. Resistance training, (weight training), can help both sexes stay lean by building muscle and raising metabolism. The fact is, hours and hours of aerobic exercise won't help most people lose weight fast because your metabolism drops back to normal fairly quickly after stopping the exercise. If you gain muscle, however, your body's resting metabolism, (the amount of calories you burn when you're just sitting still), increases, because muscle requires a lot of calories to maintain. Studies have shown consistent weight training to raise the body's metabolism by 15%. This means an average woman might burn 200-300 more calories at rest every day! Resistance training is the gift that keeps on giving! Although, keep in mind that muscle mass weighs more than fat (don't be surprised if you gain weight but look slimmer).
12. Rest properly. This means not only taking at least 24-48 hours between strength training the same muscles, (and taking 1-2 days off from exercising each week); it also means getting enough sleep at night, since sleep deficiency impairs your ability to lose fat.
13. Be realistic. Don't expect a miracle. Healthy weight loss can be achieved fairly quickly, but you'll need to be patient. In addition, be sure to set realistic goals. Make sure that the weight you're trying to reach is a healthy weight for you, and keeping in mind that gaining pounds of muscle will help you lose fat, be trimmer, and look better even though you don't actually lose any weight. Your goal should be a healthy body, not a number of pounds! Everyone looks good at a different weight. A short person may look really good at about 112 pounds, but a person of a taller height would just look unhealthy. Keep yourself at a weight that makes you look good, not at a number that sounds good.
14. Make adjustments. A successful weight loss strategy based on reducing calorie intake and increasing activity can be adjusted to maintain your desired weight once you reach it. Unlike typical diets, this method is sustainable -- it is a lifestyle change, not a binge-and-purge exercise. Slowly adjust your diet and exercise to include more weight training and calories, as much as is comfortable for you. If you do gain any weight back, you want that weight to be lean, toned muscle, not fat. In addition, weight training, no matter what your age, prevents muscle atrophy and can help stave off osteoporosis.
* Instead of thinking of it as losing a certain amount of pounds, think of it as being a certain weight. So if you are 145 pounds, and you would like to lose 10 pounds, think of it as being 135 pounds. This helps you think about it as a long-term goal and not just losing the weight to gain it back again.
15. Be confident. You need to believe in yourself! If you want to diet, and you know that it will make you feel better, then you need confidence. Otherwise, the temptation to cheat on your diet will make it harder, and you will not feel better when you do lose weight. Avoid temptations like chocolate, ice cream, and cookies. They may taste good, but there are other foods that taste delicious, too, without being unhealthy. You need to always encourage yourself to achieve the goals that you have set. Learn to evaluate your efforts fairly and objectively. If you fail to achieve your target for the week, find out why is it so. Is it because you have missed a jogging session? Or you have been eating junk food for one of the days? After evaluating, look ahead to next week and try your best to stick to your plan.[4]
16. Be consistent and disciplined, and have self motivation. To lose weight effectively, you need to stick to your weight loss plan religiously so as to see results. When you have the thought of giving up, visualize how good you will look when you manage to slim down successfully.

How To Be A Good Kisser - In 3 Simple Steps


How To Be A Good Kisser

http://www.everysinglesolution.com/images/article%20pictures/kiss.gif

Kissing is a very personal emotion and is generally used to show your love or care for someone. Kissing has a big role to play when it comes to dating and being impressive. So how to be a good kisser? Do you know that kissing is such a crucial part of your life that you can be rejected or accepted just based on the way you kiss someone? Kissing someone is one thing and being good at it is another. Every person wants a partner who is a good kisser and knows the true art of kissing. Read on to discover some of the best ways on how to be a good kisser and achieve mind blowing results.

Is the moment right? - In order to be a good kisser you should know when the perfect moment to kiss your partner is. Timing has a very vital role to play when it comes to being a good kisser and achieving the desired results. Make sure your partner is looking and expecting a kiss as well and you have your timings perfect in order to become a good kisser.

Add variation to it- Some people simply do not know how to kiss and the best way they find this out is when their partner whom they are kissing tends to push them away. Remember while you are kissing you need to add variation to it. You simply can't be in the same position all throughout. You can add a combination of various things such as adding some tongue action, changing face positions, your rhythm etc in order to be a good kisser and get the best out of the situation.

Never ask your partner- Some people tend to ask their partners whether they were good or not. Never ever ask your partner whether you are a good kisser or not. If your partner enjoyed your kiss than he or she would be willing to do it again or maybe he or she would tell you instantly after you are done with the kiss. Asking your partner is not only cheap but might spoil your chances as well of any future dates. Remember being a good kisser is all in your mind. If you think you are a good kisser than you are and if you think you are not a good kisser than you aren't.

What you don't know yet- Ever tried to wonder what's in a woman's mind? What is she thinking about? Do you know that women do not always mean what they say? They might say something and mean the exact opposite. But what do women actually want? Do you know there are some secrets women don't want men to know but men absolutely must know these secrets in order to succeed with women? Read on to discover some of the most "Shocking Secrets" women don't want men to know.

"A kiss can destroy a philosophy."
"A kiss can destroy a philosophy."

It is said that just after one kiss, a woman comes to know whether you are the one she can spend her entire life with, or not. I’m sure that this one liner must have stressed the importance of kissing, for all you guys out there. In fact, being a good kisser is one of the essential requirements of having good physical relations between the partners. A kiss might mean anything, right from emotional affection to passionate desire. What you are able to convey to the other partner will depend upon the way you kiss him/her.
Kissing Tips & Techniques
  • First things first! Make sure that your physical appearance is attractive. Otherwise, the other person will not even feel like kissing.
  • Kissing means using lips. Make sure you lips are soft and supple and for that, start using lip balm on a daily basis. However, don’t use a balm or a gloss just before kissing; it will be a major turn-off.
  • Nobody wants to kiss garlic or onion or say, smoke. Do not kiss if you have just had smelly things for lunch or smoked cigarettes. At the same time, always keep mints with you, for that perfect fresh breath.
  • In the initial seconds, go easy. Give the other person time to feel completely at ease. You don’t want to scare your partner.
  • Always try different types of kisses. French kiss is not the only kiss in the world.
  • Don’t become so lost in the kiss, so as to completely forget the other person. Be attentive to his/her non-verbal responses.
  • Lastly, be confident. Getting nervous while kissing is sure to make the beautiful sensations end up in a mess. Just go with the flow.
Different Kiss Types
Many people believe that there are only two types of kisses - check kiss and French kiss. However, the realm of kiss is very vast. To know more, read on!
  • In the Butterfly Kiss, you bring your face very close to that of your partner and then, flutter your eyelashes rapidly.
  • Cheek Kiss, as we all know, is one of the friendly kisses. It is usually adopted on the first date. You need to gently brush you lips across your partner’s cheek.
  • Earlobe Kiss involves sipping and sucking the earlobe of the partner. Since you are so close to the ear, do not make too loud noises.
  • In the Eskimo Kiss, you gently rub your nose with that of your partner.
  • Eye Kiss, as the name suggests, implies giving a tender kiss on the closed eyes of the partner.
  • You can do the Finger Kiss, while relaxing with your partner. Take his/her fingers and gently suck on them.
  • Considered an erotic kiss, Foot Kiss involves gently sucking the toes and then, kissing the foot very lightly.
  • Forehead Kiss is meant to be the friendliest kiss. You simply brush your lips across your partner’s forehead.
  • Freeze Kiss, also known as Melt Kiss, is the one in which you put an ice cube into your mouth and kiss your partner, while passing the cube to his/her mouth with your tongue.
  • French Kiss is the most sensual kiss amongst all. At times called the Soul Kiss, it involves the tongue along with the lips.
  • While doing the Fruity Kiss, you put a piece of a juicy fruit between your lips. While kissing you nibble a part of the fruit, while he nibbles the other.
  • In Hand Kiss, you raise your partner’s hand to your lips and brush them lightly across the tip of the hand.
  • Hot and Cold Kiss involves first licking your partners lips to make them warm and then, blowing on them to make them cold. Keep alternating.
  • Lick Kiss is gently running your tongue over your partner’s lips, just before kissing.
  • Lip Sucking Kiss means that you suck on the lower lip of the partner while kissing.
  • For Neck Nibble Kiss, start with nibbling you way up and down your partner’s neck. Finally, place a gentle kiss on his/her lips.
  • Nip Kiss will require you to slightly nibble on your partner’s lips, while kissing. Make sure you do not end up biting him/her.
  • While doing the Shoulder Kiss, come from behind your partner, give a slight hug and then, kiss the top of his/her shoulder.
  • You can do the Sip Kiss while drinking something sweet. Take a sip of the drink, leaving a little of it on your lips, and gently kiss your partner.
  • In Trickle Kiss, you take a sip of your favorite drink and then, trickle it into your partner’s mouth while kissing.
  • Wake Up Kiss is more about time than technique. Just before your partner is about to wake up, kiss him/her - starting with the cheeks and ending at the lips. Then, softly say - Good Morning!

In the movie "Hitch", Will Smith's character, Alex ‘Hitch' Hitchens, is a date doctor who counsels Albert, played by Kevin James, on how to get the girl of his dreams to notice him. Once that's over, he coaches Albert on how to behave during their first date. One of the topics he covers is how to go about getting a great first kiss. Hitch employs the 90/10 technique. If they've had a pleasant evening and Allegra is hesitating at the door before going inside after Albert has walked her home, then he should gently lean in for a kiss by going 90% of the way, allowing her to go the remaining 10% if she's interested. Luckily for Albert, the method works, and he and Allegra end the movie happily married.

A first kiss is very important. It sets the precedent for all kisses to follow, and can be a huge determining factor as to whether or not you'll want to see the person again. My very first kiss was in ninth grade to a guy whose name I can't remember because after that one instance I only referred to him in my head as Lizard Tongue.

Let that be lesson number one: easy on the freaking tongue. At the very beginning of a first kiss, try to refrain from shoving your tongue down her throat. All you need to start with is a gentle, relaxed mouth that is slightly open to let her know that you're interested in kissing with tongue further down the line if she's interested, too. Holding her hand to bring her in for a kiss is nice move, it suggests interest without being invasive.

Lesson number two: You will know within ½ a second whether or not she's into the kiss. If she meets your slightly open mouth with cold, pursed lips, or giggles and pats your arm in a "There, there, that's enough now" sort of way, it's best to retreat. You took a shot, you went for it, good for you, now back it up.

Lesson number three: A good kiss involves more than just the mouth. If she shows signs of satisfaction such as eagerly kissing you back, squeezing your hand, putting her arms around your neck, then you can proceed. Cradle the back of her head with your hand, or pull her closer to you by guiding her waist. Caress her face softly and subtly with your hands and fingertips. The kiss will progress naturally at this point; you'll be altering your moves to match her kissing style, and she'll be doing the same. Eventually, if the chemistry is right, you should end up with a comfortable kissing style all your own.

Lesson number four: When it's time for tongue (and be warned, there are some girls who don't enjoy deep, tongue kisses, it's just a personal preference) gently introduce it by circling the tip of your tongue around hers. If it feels right, then you can go a little bit deeper, swirling both your tongues together. Either way, you're not going for Dentist of the Year award here. There's no need to perform a tonsillectomy. Some people mistakenly think that deeper is better.

Lesson number five: Remember to swallow. For some reason, it seems that men produce more saliva than women. If you're in the midst of a kiss and you notice that you're drooling, something is very wrong. Swallow frequently to prevent excessive moisture. A kiss can be dry and still be sexy.

Finally, lesson number six: Don't forget the value of make-out sessions. A good, five minute kiss does not mean sex has to immediately follow, nor does it mean that it should. Relax and take things slow, enjoy each others company and take the time to learn each others bodies. Kissing can be an orgasmic experience in and of itself, and if you are eventually lucky enough to sleep with her, she'll appreciate the fact that you didn't rush into it.